Coal is a readily available fuel source throughout much of the world and is used extensively in electricity generation. However, coal production and many coal-based power generation systems are accompanied by various environmental impacts, principle among them being carbon dioxide emissions. Given the abundance of coal and ever increasing global energy demands, significant efforts are being made and have been made to develop technologies that use coal in more environmentally friendly ways and more efficiently than simply burning coal, such as coal gasification, coal liquefaction, ethanol production using coal, and various ways to improve the efficiency and reduce carbon dioxide emissions from coal burning power plants. Moreover, there are significant efforts being devoted to so called “clean coal” technologies. It is unclear whether any particular technology will emerge as a leader over all other technologies. Rather, these various technologies, as well as others, are in numerous forms and each has advantages and disadvantages. It is clear, however, that there is and will be a need for technologies that can process coal, as well as other materials such as oil shale, efficiently and with reduced environmental impact.